Musculosketal Systems and Physiology of Exercise

Musculosketal Systems and Physiology of Exercise The growth of the skeleton determines the growth and proportion of the body, the skeleton begins to form 6 weeks after fertilisation, bone growth goes through rapid growth through adolescents however genrally the skeleton does not stop growing up to the age of 25. Ossification is the formation of bone. The process of calcification – the deposition of calcium salts-occurs during ossification, but it can also occur in other tissues. When calcification occurs in tissues other than bone, the result is a calcified tissue (calcified cartilage) that does not resemble bone. Two major forms of ossification exist: endochondral and intramembranous. In endochondral ossification, bone replaces existing cartilage. In intramembranous ossification, bone develops directly from mesenchyme or fibrous connective tissue. (fundamentals of A and P) Word count 119 The human skeleton consists of 206 bone. When together the skeletal system provides the framework which all other tissues and organs attach giving the body shape. The skeletal system is divided into two parts the axial which is made up of the spine, skull, ribs and sternum. The appendicularskeleton which is made up of the pelvis, arm and leg bones. The skeleton has 5 main functions. Shape- The shape of the bone structure changes as the body grows. The skeletal system determines the height and width of a person, body shape is heredity. The three main body shapes are ectomorphs (tall and thin), mesomorphs (short and muscular), endomorphs (apple shape) Support- the skeleton provides support to the body and keeps the internal organs in place. The vertebral column allows someone to stand erect. The pelvis and leg bones are strong enough to carry the weight of the whole body. Movement- The bones are held together by ligaments. Tendons attach the muscles to the bones. Combined the muscular and skeletal system carry out movement, when muscles contract bones move. Protection- The skeleton protects vital organs from damage. The skull houses the brain, while the vertebral column protects the spinal cord which controls all bodily functions through communication with the brain. The thorax and sternum protect the heart and lungs. (livestrong.com) Words 280 The Pivot joint- In a pivot joint, the rounded or pointed surface of one bone articulates with a ring formed partly by another bone and partly by a ligament. A pivot joint is monoaxial because it allows rotation around its own longitudinal axis only. Ball and socket- Consists of a bonelike surface of one bone fitting into a cuplike depression of another bone. Examples of functional ball and socket are the shoulders. Hinge Joint- The convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of another bone. Hinge joints are in the knee, elbow, ankle and interphalangeal joints. Ellipsoid Joint- The convex oval-shaped projection of one bone fits into the oval shaped depression of another bone. Examples are the wrist and metacarpophalangeal joints. Saddle Joint- The articular surface of one bone is saddle shaped and the articular surface of the other bone fits into the saddle as a rider would sit. The most common saddle joint is the trapezius Gliding Joint- The articulating surfaces of bones in a planar joint are flat or slightly curved. Some examples are the intertarsal joints between tarsal bones at the ankle joints. Sternocostal joints sternum ends of the costal cartilages at the tips of the second through seventh pairs of ribs. Gliding joints primarly permit side to side and back to back movements. (words 220) The bones at a synovial joint are covered by articular cartilage, which is typically hyaline cartilage and occasionally fibrocartilage. The cartilage covers the surface of the bones with a smooth surface but does not bind them together. Articular cartilage reduces friction between bones in the joint during movement and helps to absorb shock. Articular capsule- A sleeve like capsule l surrounds a synovial joint, encloses the synovial cavity, and unites the articulating bones. This is composed of two layers, an outer fibrous capsule and an inner synovial membrane. The FC, usually consists of dense, irregular connective tissue that attaches to the periosteal of the articulating bones. The flexibility of the FC permits considerable movement at a joints while tensile strength helps prevent bones from dislocating. The fibres of some FC’s are arranged in parrelel bundles that adapted for resisting strains (ligaments). The mechanical structure of ligaments helps to hold bones together in a SJ. The SM, is composed of areolar connective tissue. Synovail Fluid- The SM secretes SF, which forms a thin film over the surfaces within the articular capsule. This clear/yellow fluid consists of hydrochloric acid and interstitial fluid filtered from blood plasma. The functions of this fluid are reducing friction by lubricating the joint and supplying nutrients to and removing metabolic wastes within articular cartilage. (Grabowski and tortora 2003) (220 words) TAQ 2 Three layers of connective tissue are part of each muscle; epimysium, perimysium and endomysium. The entire muscle is surrounded by epimysium a dense layer of collagen fibres. The epimysium separates the muscle from surrounding tissues and organs. It is connected to the deep fascia, a dense connective tissue layer. The connective tissue fibres of the perimysium divide the skeletal muscle into a series of compartments, each containing a bundle of fibres called a fascicle. Possessing collagen and elastic fibres, the perimysium contains blood vessels and nerves that maintain blood flow and innervate the muscle fibres within the fascicles. Each fascicle receives branches of these blood vessels and nerves. At each end of the muscle, the collagen fibres of the perimysium, perimysium and endomysium come together to form a bundle known as the tendon or aponeurosis. Tendons and aponeurosis usually attach skeletal muscles to bones. Where they contact the bone, the collagen fibres extend into t he bone matrix, providing a firm attachment. Any contraction of the muscle will exert a pull on the attached bone. Muscle contraction huge quantities of energy. An extensive vascular network delivers the necessary oxygen and nutrients and carries away metabolic wastes generated by active skeletal muscles. (Martini2006) words 200 The primary cell types of tendons are the tenoblasts and tenocytes. Tenocytes are mature tendon cells that are found throughout the tendon structure, connected to collagen fibres. Tenocytes are mature tendon cells that are found throughout the tendon structure. Tendon tissue is the tissue which connects muscles to bones. Tendons are the connective tissues that transmit the mechanical force of muscle contraction to the bones; the tendon is firmly connected to muscle fibres at one end and components of the one at its other end. The tendons are the strongest amongst the soft tissues. They require great strength is necessary for withstanding the stresses generating muscular contraction. A tendon is composed of dense fibrous connective tissue made up primary fibres are bunched together into subfasicles. Multiple secondary fibre bundles form tertiary fibre bundles, groups of which in turn form the tendon unit. Primary, secondary and tertiary bundles are surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue (endotenon) which facilitates the gliding of bundles against one another during movement. (Britannica.com) (words 160) Skeletal muscle adaptations to extend to underwater time despite selective vasoconstriction include elevated myoglobin concentration, high acid buffering ability and high aerobic and anaerobic enzyme activities. Because cardiac muscle is perfused during dives, it will rely less heavily on MB and anaerobic pathways to support contractile activity even before birth, it may be more physiolically mature at birth and develop faster than skeletal muscles. (jeb.biologists.org) The energy for muscle contraction comes from ATP, which in turn comes from the metabolism of glucose and fatty acids. But not much ATP is stored in the muscles that just a few twitches could quickly exhaust the supply. Creatine phosphate cannot be used directly to power muscle contraction but phosphate can transfer its phosphate group to ADP to form ATP: Creatine phosphate + ADP += creatine + ATP. Two types of skeletal muscle Red (Slow twitch) White (Fast twitch). Red has a rich blood supply, numerous mitochondria and myglobin, that forms a loose combination with oxygen and stores it in the muscle. Although it contracts rather slowly it is capable of long term activity without fatigue. White Muscle has a limited blood supply, few mitochondria and a low myoglobin content. It depends entirely on anaerobic breakdown of glycogen for its energy supply is capable of very strong rapid contractions for a short period of time. Because these fibres have fewer mitochondria and capillaries than red fibres, their ability to resynthesize ATP through oxidative phosphorylation is limited and they fatigue rapidly. Muscle fibre types also differ between the sexes. Women tend to have more red fibres and less white fibres so a female will have less strength than a male but has more endurance. Men with more white fibre depend more on storing carbohydrate for fuel, therefore they have less endurance. Smooth muscle has some differences to skeletal muscles they are a pplied slowly and smoothly- contractions of the digestive system can occasionally rapid. In smooth muscle Ca ions activate the myosin, through two intermediate enzymes before the ATP becomes involved. Although smooth muscle contraction is slow it is efficient it uses 10% of the ATP required by skeletal muscle to produce the same strength contraction. Cardiac muscle is unique to the heart. It is able to beat incessantly because it never maintains a contraction. It contracts and promptly relaxes and the relaxation period is twice as long as its contraction period. The relaxation periods and contraction periods are strictly programmed; the muscle rests, then it must contract before it can rest again. Cardiac muscle is unlike smooth or skeletal muscle, it cannot rely on anaerobic metabolic pathways to provide its energy; it must never fail to get all the oxygen it needs. Cardiac muscle is the muscle in our bodies that is unable, except in disease states, to achieve a state of sustained contraction. (biog1445.org) (Martini 2006) Words 506 TAQ 3 The Impact of exercise on the Cardiovascular system: At rest the average cardiac output is 5.8 litres per minute, this changes significantly during exercise, the pattern of blood distribution changes. Light exercise: before you begin to exercise, the heart rate will increases slightly because of the rise in sympathetic activity. Extensive vasodilation occurs as the rate of oxygen consumption in skeletal muscles increases. Peripheral resistance drops, the blood flow through the capillaries increases and blood enters the venous system at a fast rate. The venus return increases as skeletal muscle contractions squeeze blood along the peripheral veins and increased breathing rate pulls blood into the venae cavae via respiratory pump. Cardiac output rises, primarily in response to the rise Respiratory System As the cardiac output rises the blood flow to the lungs ( pulmonary perfusion) increases. The oxygen diffusing capacity a measurement of the rate the avelor air into the blood increases during maximal exercise because more pulmonary capillaries become perfused. There becomes a greater surface area available for diffusion of oxygen into the pulmonary blood capillaries. During vigorous exercise, oxygen consumption and pulmonary ventilation both increase dramatically. With moderate exercise the increase is due to an increase in the depth of ventilation rather than the increased breathing rate. The abrupt increase in ventilation at the beginning of exercise is due to neural changes that send impulses to inspiratory area. The gradual increase in ventilation is due to chemical and physical changes in the blood stream Decreased hypophosphite due to increased oxygen Slightly increased Pc02 due to CO2 production contracting muscle fibres Increased temperature, due to the release of more heat as more oxygen is utilized. Smoking lowers respiratory effiency during exercise even with moderate exercise because several factors effect the respiratory system Nicotine constricts terminal bronchioles Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin reducing oxygen carrying capability Irritants in smoke cause muscus secretion to increase Muscular People with a higher proportion of fast glycolytic fibres often participate in activities which require periods of intense activity such as weight lifting. People with higher percentages of slow oxidative fibres are better at activities that require endurance ( long distance running). The total number of skeletal muscle fibres do not increase, the characteristics can alter to some extent. Aerobic exercises cause gradual transformation of FG fibres into FOG fibres. The transformed muscle fibres show slight increases in diameter. Exercise require great strengths for short periods of time to produce an increase in the size and strength of FG fibres. The increase is due to increased synthesis of thick and thin filaments. The result of muscle enlargement is evidence by the buldging muslces of body builders. Anabolic steroids are hormones similar to testosterone which increase muscles and strength during exercise. The large doses required have damging effects such as aggression, heart dise ase, kidney damage and stunted growth. Skeleton Bones have the ability to alter their strength in response to changes in mechanical stress. When placed under stress the bone tissue adapts by becoming stronger through increased deposition of mineral salts and production of collagen fibres. Another effect of stress is to increase the production of calcitonin. Without mechanical stress, the bones are unable to remodel normally because bone resorption outstrips bone formation. Removal mechanical stress weakens the bones through demineralisation and decreased collagen fibres. The most common of mechanical stress on the bones is from the the pull of skeletal muscles and the pull of gravity. The bones of an athletic person become thicker and stronger, weight bearing activities help build and retain bone mass. Astronauts and people which have fractured bones can lose up to 1% of bone mass per week. Words 560 (tortora grabowski 2003) TAQ 4 Osteoarthritis This is a degenerative non- inflammatory disease where over a period of time the cartilage is gradually lost. This will result in painful and restricted movement of the affected joints. This disease is a result of aging, irritation of the joints. This disease is the cause of disability in the elderly. The articular cartilage becomes thinner because its renewal does not keep in unison with its repair. Eventually the bony articular surfaces come in contact and the bones beings to degenerate. Some abnormal bone repair does take place and the articular surfaces become misshapen. Chronic inflammation develops with the effusion into the joints, due to the irritation caused by the tissue debris not removed by phagocytes. In some cases there is abnormal outgrowth of the cartilage at the edges of the bones which becomes ossified. Primary Osteoarthritis- Is the most common type, the cause of this disease is unknown. The changes may be due to acceleration of the normal aging process within the joints which have had excessive use over the years due to plenty of physical activity. This usually begins to develop in the late stage of middle age and affects large weight bearing joints; the hips, knees, cervical and lumbar spine. In most cases of primary osteoarthritis only affects one joint. Secondary osteoarthritis- This tends to occur in the joints where the cartilage has already been damaged due to Congential deformity of bones such as dislocation Trauma, intracapsular fracture of the bone and injury to intracapsuel structures. Other conditions, inflammatory diseases, haemophilia following repeated haemorrhages into the joints, peripheral nerve lesions, gout, acromegaly, diabetic neuropathy. Osteoarthritis of the spine This condition is more common within the elderly. Degenerative changes cause narrowing of intervertebral discs and osteophytes may develop around the margins of joints of the vertebral column, commonly in the cervical region. This may cause damage to the nervous system, varying from compression of the individual spinal nerves to spinal cord injury ( the main cause of paralysis). (340) (Grabowski and tortora 2003) Cruciate Knee This is where the ligament in the knee is torn which may result in reconstructive surgery. The anterior cruciate ligament is a tough band of tissue joining the thigh bone to the shin bone at the knee joint. (nhs.com). This condition tends to affect people which are more athletic. The cruciate ligaments are found inside the knee joint. They cross each other to form an x with the anterior cruciate ligament in front and the posterior cruciate ligament in the back and forth motion of the knee. The anterior cruciate ligament runs diagonally in the middle of the knee, it prevents the tibia from sliding out in front of the femur and this provides rotational stability for the knee. There are 3 different grades of sprains which occur to the knee Grade 1 sprain is where the ligament has been slightly stretched and the knee is still stable. This will result in discomfort whilst walking and inability to participate in strenuous activity. Grade 2 This stretches the ligament to the point where it becomes loose. This is often referred to as a partial tear. Grade 3 This is referred to as a complete tear of the ligament. The ligament has been split in two pieces and the knee joint is unstable. The cruciate anterior is often injured by stopping suddenly, changing direction instantly, slowing down whilst running, landing from jumping incorrectly, direct collision’s in contacts sports such as football and rugby. When the anterior cruciate is injured often the patient will hear a popping sound and will feel their knee giving way underneath them. The most common symptoms are; The knee will swell within 24 hours. The pain and swelling may resolve naturally. However if the patient choses to attempt returning back to sports they may cause further damage to the meniscus of the knee. Loss of a range of movement in the knee Tenderness along the joint line When a person does not have the adequate muscles strength coordination or balance to quickly react to the demands of sports there is an increased risk for a serious knee injury. Glute weakness and instability lead to excessive strain being placed on the ALC. (coreperformance.com) Words 365 (orthoinfo.aaos.org) References Martini F.H, 2006, Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, seventh edition, San Fracisco, Pearson education.inc Grabowski Sandra.Tortora Gerard, 2003, Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, tenth edition, Hoboken, John Wiley and sons,inc Waugh.A,Grant. A.2001, Ross and Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in health and illness, ninth edition,London, Harcourt Publishers Tortora Gerard, Grabowski Sandra, principle of Anotomy and physiology. New York. Harper Collins college. http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=a00549 (9/10/2014) http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/587180/tendon-organ (15/05/2015) http://www.neuroanatomy.wisc.edu/virtualbrain/Brainstem/01pyramid.html (26/05/2015) http://www.biog1445.org/demo/10/muscles.html#smooth (1/06/2015) http://www.livestrong.com/article/115165-function-skeleton (1/06/2015) http:www.coreperformance.com/knowledge/injury-pain/acl-injuries.html (2/06/2015)

Research Ethics for Social Scientists: Between Ethical Conduct and Regulatory Essay

In this case, the questions of when researchers may possibly feel that they had a responsibility to protect research subjects along with what they can do when faced with criminal behavior are addressed (191). The commentators in this case included ted Palys, john Lowman, Monique marks and Dick Hobbs. On the question of intervening on the violence incidences, Dick Hobbs points out that intervening would be counterproductive but since violence is both emotive and seductive to men intervening would be due to personal relations with one of the fighters but not on the basis of social justice (192). All the commentators were cautious of intervening because they feared it would alter the behavior which they were studying. However, apart from Dick Hobbs the rest believed that it was crucial to report the incidence if someone got seriously injured. On the issue of revealing the information they gathered in the field some suggested they would be willing to do so (Palys and Lowman), others (Dick Hobbs and Marks) argued that they would not since the information was meant for academic purposes only and testifying would elevate research profile and make it hard to perform another research on similar sites (193). All the commentators agreed that the source of funding would not affect their decisions to intervene and testify. However, Marks and Hobbs highly criticized the attempts of directing researchers’ responses to ethical dilemmas since their decisions in the field were not governed by formal codes, but were rather situational and responses cannot be determined outside the field (194, 195).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Conclusion This reading shows that although it may not be their duty, social researchers in criminal investigation have a duty to protect the respondents especially when someone may get injured in the processes. They should do so by reporting such incidences and testify upon what happened for the purposes of social justice. References Mark, I. (2006). Case study 2. Research ethics for social scientists: between ethical conduct and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   regulatory compliance. Sage publications, London.   

Short Story Dangerous. Uncontrollable - 975 Words

Dangerous. Uncontrollable. Do not approach. These were the words that were plastered over the metal fence. Many heroic stories start with a protagonist, me in this case, and the protagonist is forced to go into danger to save the lives of others. I was about to jump over this fence to save a life, and that life was my own. The story starts on a Tuesday. There was nothing different about this day. I woke up to my parents arguing about the cereal. The sun was shining just like it did on Monday. I dressed in the usual jean and t-shirt combo, and I was ready for school. Many kids write that school is their own personal hell, but that wasn’t the case for me. I really enjoyed school. There was petty drama, stoner kids telling outrageous†¦show more content†¦Benny mentioned something about social suicide if he was caught talking to me, and I couldn’t agree more. It would be embarrassing to have someone see that my only friend was a ten year old. Now, many people by no w would still be stuck on why there was a metal fence surrounding this suburban town. Well, there was a metal fence because it was for our safety. Behind the wall was the unknown. Not many people liked to not be in control, and that was what was beyond the wall. This unknown started after the new president was elected. One town after the other started to fail. Electronics started to die out, lakes dried up, and people started to rampage. Our town was the only one that survived, so our mayor suggested we build a wall for our survival. Benny and I were walking close to the wall when a group of sporty people from my school popped out of nowhere. It was almost like some cheesy superhero movie where the bad guys come out dressed in sports gear and the hero is suddenly in some tight outfit. â€Å"Jordan, we heard that you have the answers to tomorrow’s test.† One guy sternly shouts. â€Å"Have you been doing steroids? 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Analysis Of Bittorrent, A Nightmare For Copyright...

BitTorrent, a nightmare for copyright enforcement agencies Using BitTorrent has become a popular and effective way of downloading files over the internet. BitTorrent is a peer-to-peer file sharing (P2P) internet protocol that allows files to be distributed via an internet connection. The use of BitTorrent itself is a perfectly legal and legitimate process of downloading certain files. For example, if someone wanted to obtain a large free to use file like a Linux distribution, BitTorrent provides a fast and effective means to download the file legally. Another legal use of BitTorrent would be companies like Blizzard who use custom BitTorrent clients to distribute and update their games to avoid overloading their servers. The main†¦show more content†¦A swarm is a group of computers that all have the desired torrent file available for downloading. Computers enter the swarm by accessing a torrent file (file extension is generally .torrent) via a torrent client such as Bit Torrent, uTorrent, Vuze, Transmission, or many others. Trackers are located inside torrent files that keep track of connected computers. The tracker communicates with the other computers in the swarm and shares their corresponding IP addresses with everyone in the swarm so the computers can connect to one another. The tracker does not handle any of the data being transmitted, it merely provides a medium for the computers to keep track of which computers are in the swarm. In other words, when an individual wants to download a file, first they download a torrent file and access it via a client that contains a tracker allowing them to download the file from not one but many people at one time. The actual file being transferred is not transferred as one large file, but is broken down into many â€Å"pieces† when it is downloaded. After a computer has downloaded a piece of the file, they are then able to upload that piece to others in the swarm. Thus, computers in the swarm are downloading and uploading to and from each other simultaneously. Once the computer has all the pieces of the file, the client then assembles the pieces so the file is operable. BitTorrent clients can also utilize